The articles on this website were all written by me, and were originally published in the 1980s by Johan Quanjer in the magazine New Humanity Journal. They are listed in chronological order and have been revised only to reflect contemporary technology and politics. The decision to republish them now was precipitated by Russia's invasion of Ukraine on 24th February 2022. The war has been framed by US President Joe Biden as a war between democracy and autocracy, which gives the articles particular relevance at this time.
A free society cannot have a fixed social order or be constructed from an ideological blueprint; neither can a harmonious society be based on greed, selfishness, and the exploitation of others. A thriving enterprise culture, which is generally considered to be the foundation required for further economic growth, requires fair competition, and depends on the self-exploitation, initiative and creativity of individuals and the diversity that results from their spiritual growth, development and fulfilment. It also requires cohesive organisations that are flexible enough to allow these individuals to interact and express themselves freely, as well as being efficient in optimising the use and conservation of resources, and potentially profitable enough to attract or justify any necessary capital investment.
Democracy is based on the freedom and organised collective power of groups and alliances, rather than on the freedom and creativity of individuals (which it supposedly protects), but is usually contrasted with autocracy or oligarchy, which are both systems in which power is concentrated, and exercised by, respectively, one or a few individuals. Examples of all these types of social organisation currently exist in the Western Democracies.
In recent years, another, more flexible type of organisation has emerged where there was a need for creativity, innovation or the close cooperation of diverse experts. Power is devolved as much as possible to responsible individuals, in so far as they can be held accountable for the direction of their own activities within the limits set by cohesive, creative interaction with other individuals! The pattern of communications in such organisations is more horizontal than vertical, reflecting a holistic structure that resembles a spoked wheel more than a hierarchical pyramid. It is a network that facilitates the free flow of information and ideas between individuals.
The philosophical concept associated with such forms of mutable, creative organisation is pneumatocracy.1 All aspects of human social systems that require the participation of independent, spiritually motivated, creative individuals together form the broader constituency of pneumatocracy through which the creative momentum of cultural evolution is maintained. Pneumatocracy thus complements and refines democracy to create a coherent political philosophy of progressive social change rooted in humanity but based on individual creativity, freedom, responsibility and the rule of law.
David Baker
"The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others." J S Mill, On Liberty
Much has been made by politicians in the West of the idealised, libertarian advantages of democracy. In reality, particularly with the rise of populism and social media in recent years, many of these same politicians have actually been trying to undermine and manage democracy by manipulating, for their own ends, the outcomes of democratic elections and referenda through disinformation, unregulated, targeted online ads, voter exclusion, and illegal funding. Instead of the concerns and aspirations of the electorate informing government policy, policies have been influenced by the vested interests of politicians, and public opinion has been manipulated to elect them.
On its own, democracy does not guarantee an open, pluralistic society. Only a liberal democracy, underpinned by freedom and the rule of law can do that. The quality of decisions made democratically depends on a fair and well-regulated electoral process, and on the electorate being educated and well-informed.
In a representative democracy, the collective power of groups and alliances is entrusted to and exercised by their leaders and representatives, whose views may not actually be statistically representative. The outcome of democratic elections depends largely on media influence, campaign funding and political advertising rules, eligibility to vote, how votes are counted, the homogeneity of a constituency's electorate, and how constituencies are determined.
A truly liberal democracy depends on the availability of choices, and the freedom to make them. Our ability to adapt and survive as a species depends on the individual diversity that fosters creativity and innovation. In a pluralistic society, a delicate balance must be maintained between the freedom of the individual and the freedom of groups. The majority view, or what is generally considered to be the "common good", may not be the best solution. A representative democracy with evidence-based decision-making can help to ensure that expert advice and different points of view are taken into account, and that the socially divisive effects of identity politics are minimised. A system of proportional representation can also help avoid majoritarianism, although it can be less decisive.
Ironically, even democracies with a strong legal, constitutional framework of checks and balances can decline into autocracies over time. Leaders are often tempted to change constitutions to extend the duration of their leadership and increase their powers over government and judicial institutions. Dictators tend to become increasingly isolated and less open to new ideas and other points of view. They usually have to repress the people, strictly control public opinion, and remove political opponents to remain in power. Consequently, it is more difficult to replace an autocrat than a democratically elected government. Eventually, the effects of an autocrat's bad decisions and neglect accumulate until there is a coup or a popular uprising, which may result in a civil war. A return to democracy is not guaranteed, and another autocrat may emerge.
Oligarchy is likely to be the default type of organisation in human societies where there is competition for resources, particularly those with free-market economies. This is because, as mathematical modelling of wealth distribution in such economies has illustrated, "the 'natural' wealth distribution in a free-market economy is one of complete oligarchy. It is only redistribution that sets limits on inequality"2. In the absence of anti-trust legislation, there is also a tendency towards monopoly, whereby companies expand and take over or amalgamate with others to take advantage of the economies of scale or to colaborate in cartels to agree prices or quotas.
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